The Humble Administrator’s Garden (Suzhou, Jiangsu Province) in autumn, a mirror of the traditional designs aligned with the natural contours of the land, the flow of water, and the organic growth of vegetation Photo: TUCHONG
Landscapes serve as mediums through which individuals exchange aesthetic experiences. The emergence and development of cultivated landscapes is inherently tied to the dimensions of time and space. Throughout China’s long history, the evolution of landscape design has been closely aligned with the Chinese aesthetic ethos. The material and spiritual civilizations of successive eras have developed in tandem, producing landscapes that reflect the defining characteristics of their times. As tangible entities, landscapes also serve as a profound expression of spiritual civilization. Refined aesthetic consciousness can be observed in Chinese architecture and garden design integrating material and spiritual dimensions.
Roundness and squareness
The philosophical concept of “roundness and squareness” originates from the traditional Chinese cosmological notion of a “round heaven and square earth.” In Chinese landscaping practices, circles and squares transcend their geometric forms, embodying rich cultural and philosophical meanings. Circles are emblematic of harmony and unity, while squares signify order and propriety. These forms play functional roles in spatial organization and utilization. Circular forms are predominantly used in private or contemplative spaces, fostering a sense of fluidity. In contrast, square forms are more prevalent in formal or public spaces, reflecting structure and order. This distinction also influences both human behavior and spatial experience. Circular spaces, associated with inclusion, are believed to facilitate gatherings and communication. Square spaces, characterized by their orderly arrangements, are better suited to activities requiring order and functional organization. The synthesis of these forms is prominently showcased in architectural masterpieces such as the Temple of Heaven and the Temple of Earth in Beijing.
Circles are often associated with softness and fluidity, whereas squares evoke impressions of solidity and clarity. In natural settings, circular landscapes, such as lakes and islands, frequently integrate seamlessly with their surroundings, reflecting a harmonious relationship with nature. By contrast, square landscapes, such as fields, cultivated land, and architectural structures, tend to signify human intervention. The interplay between circular and square forms constitutes profound cultural and aesthetic insights that emerged with the evolution of Chinese landscape design. This “circle-square consciousness” transcends the mere application of geometric shapes; it embodies a sophisticated approach to designing landscapes that are both functional, meaningful, and aesthetically pleasing. The use of these forms reflects an awareness of and respect for their inherent cultural and philosophical connotations.
Vertical and horizontal design
Vertical and horizontal consciousness embodies a meticulous approach to the planning and systematic organization of cultivated landscapes. In Chinese landscaping practices, this consciousness extends beyond the physical arrangement and division of space, encompassing rich symbolic meanings. The clear vertical and horizontal patterns evoke the structured order of the natural world, symbolizing the cosmic relationship between heaven and earth. Within the broader cultural and historical context, this vertical and horizontal consciousness highlights the foundational role of order and harmony in traditional Chinese culture and its graphical interpretation of early cosmological principles, as evidenced in practices such as the division of the “Nine Regions” in ancient China.
In ancient Chinese urban planning and traditional garden design, vertical and horizontal consciousness finds expression in the deliberate and methodical spatial arrangements, striving for a harmonious and balanced structure. This principle of balance permeates the integration of natural and artificial landscapes and the interplay of open and enclosed spaces. The urban planning of early Chinese cities, particularly Chang’an during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), modern-day Xi’an in Shaanxi Province, exemplified the centrality of this consciousness, as seen in the systematic layout of streets, marketplaces, neighborhoods, and residential quarters.
Rooted in a shared cosmological worldview, vertical and horizontal consciousness permeated the spatial practices and representations in ancient China. Deeply embedded in the evolution of Chinese landscapes, it bequeathed to later generations a historical legacy of holistic and integrative thinking, as well as a profound understanding and application of spatial order and structure. Alongside careful consideration of natural factors and the physical arrangement of space, this tradition emphasizes a reflective engagement with culture and history, underscoring the pursuit of balance, order, and harmony in traditional Chinese culture.
Profound subtlety
The concept of “profound subtlety” within ancient Chinese landscape design underscores the sophisticated nature of the crafted environment, wherein attention to minute details plays a pivotal role in shaping the overall experience. For instance, in the classical gardens of Jiangnan, the interplay of colors, lighting, fragrances, materials, and natural sounds—such as the murmur of water or the song of birds—serve to activate multiple senses, including visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile perceptions.
Traditional Chinese landscape architecture exhibits a deliberate and skillful fusion of natural and artificial elements, with the latter subtly integrated into the environment to preserve harmony between humanity and nature. Such integration is particularly evident in structures located near natural features like mountains and rivers, including Buddhist temples, monasteries, Taoist temples, and nunneries. Moreover, the careful crafting of small-scale spaces, such as serpentine pathways within courtyards, contributes to a layered spatial experience. These details can augment the spatial intrigue and potential for exploration.
The essence of profound subtlety also manifests in the way ancient Chinese landscape design embodies and reflects the values of refined traditional culture. According to the Book of Rites, “Purity and subtlety are the teachings of the Book of Changes.” This notion is further realized in the incorporation of cultural elements such as poetry, calligraphy, and painting into landscapes. These art forms not only enrich the aesthetic experience but also elevate the cultural significance of the space.
Nature-inspired craftsmanship
Consciousness of the craft of nature encompasses a deep sense of awe and reverence for the natural world. In the design of gardens, ancient practitioners meticulously considered the distinctive characteristics of topography, climate, and hydrology, seeking to align their designs with the natural contours of the land, the flow of water, and the organic growth of vegetation. The intent was to mimic nature’s forms as closely as possible. For instance, winding pathways, irregular water features, and naturalistic rockeries were purposefully designed to evoke a sense of authenticity. This includes the application of natural forms, colors, and textures, as well as the utilization of light and shadow found in the natural world. In this way, the design achieves aesthetic appeal and reflects an ecologically sustainable philosophy, demonstrating the potential for humanity’s harmonious coexistence with nature.
In landscape design, this consciousness is further reflected in the pursuit of aesthetic value drawn from the natural world. The dynamic shifts of the seasons, the inherent beauty of plant life, and the serene presence of water, mountains, and rocks were skillfully leveraged to enhance the alure of the environment while conveying deeper cultural and philosophical meanings. However, the concept transcends mere imitation; it involves creative innovation that respects and enhances nature’s intrinsic qualities. In this way, landscapes serve not only as platforms for human activities but also as pathways to appreciating natural beauty and ecological wisdom.
Consciousness of symbolism
The consciousness of symbolism in landscape design carries profound cultural, philosophical, and emotional meaning. In Chinese gardens and architectural landscapes, specific elements—such as certain plants, water features, and stones—are purposefully selected for their symbolic meanings. For instance, pine trees are emblematic of longevity, plum blossoms signify nobility, bamboo represents resilience, water symbolizes acceptance and tolerance, and stones evoke perseverance.
Chinese landscape design has long been influenced by the philosophical traditions of Confucianism and Taoism. Through thoughtful architectural layout and the integration of cultural elements, these landscapes communicate key philosophical principles. For example, the design of palaces and residences often reflects Confucian ideals of human relations and social order through their dimensions, orientation, and passages. Similarly, commemorative structures frequently employ rhetorical devices, including numerical symbolism and homophonic wordplay.
Chinese architecture and garden landscapes are rich in historical narratives and cultural legends, serving as both repositories of natural beauty and as mediums for the transmission of historical and cultural knowledge. These landscapes offer visitors a unique opportunity for cultural immersion, as they embody both humanistic and historical values, thereby emerging as a distinct category of landscape form.
Central to Chinese garden design is the concept of spatial narrative, which uses layout and design elements to immerse visitors in a narrative as they move through a space. These narratives are often rich in symbolism. Another example is the use of the “borrowed scenery” technique in classical Chinese gardens. Through ingenious spatial organization and visual cues, this technique creates the illusion of infinite landscapes within a confined space. The consciousness of symbolism exemplifies an exploration and expression of profound cultural, historical, and philosophical significance.
Learning from the past is essential for understanding the present. A range of aesthetic concepts, developed through the practice of ancient landscape design—including the consciousness of roundness and squareness, vertical and horizontal, profound subtlety, the nature-inspired craftsmanship, and symbolism, encapsulate the core of Chinese aesthetic spirit. These concepts hold significant epistemological value for the enrichment of Chinese civilization. In the contemporary context, it is crucial to reassess the formation and evolution of these aesthetic principles. Exploring how such aesthetic consciousness can better address the practical needs of the general public while enhancing their quality of life and reflecting their lived experiences is of particular importance.
Moreover, these principles play a key role in preserving and transmitting Chinese culture, while also fostering global recognition of its cultural heritage. Strengthening cultural identity and cohesion not only ensures the continuity of tradition but also supports its vitality in modern society. This process aids in the understanding and application of landscape practices rooted in Chinese culture, allowing them to meet both current and future needs while contributing to the enrichment and development of landscape culture.
Wang Yong is a professor from the Faculty of Literature and Law at the Communication University of China (CUC). Dong Jianan is a guest researcher of China Literary and Art Criticism based in the CUC.
Edited by REN GUANHONG